Search Results -

35p - Carpenter Bee
39p - Buff-tailed Bumblebee
43p - Clown-faced Bug
52p - Large Migrant Hoverfly
58p - Ruby-tailed Wasp
76p - 22-spot Ladybird

For citation purposes

125 FC - Chrysis ignita
150 FC - Megarhyssa macrurus
225 FC - Leptinotarsa decemlineata
300 FC - Gelastocoris oculatus
400 FC - Parazumia symmorpha
1000 FC - Pteromalus puparum

For citation purposes

Here you find some postal stamps depicting Chrysidids. If you wish to let us know about some more stamps with Chrysidids, please use Chrysis.net Forum.

Union des Comores, 2009 - Insects, Bees, Wasps

Complete series (6v)

Jersey Post, 2008 - Jersey Nature - Insects II

Complete series (6v)

Zimbabwe, 1997 - RAPT, Bees and Wasps of Southern Africa

Complete series (15v)

Monaco, 1987 - Parc National du Mercantour

Complete series (6v)

Mongolia, 1980 - Airs - Wasps & Bees

Complete series (7v)

Republique du Tchad, 1974

Complete series (6v)

Cuba, Navidad 1962-1963

Complete series (7v)

Kohler Chocolats Fondants, 1920 - Series V - Flying Insects

For citation purposes

The entomological survey for the purpose of research, or simply the exploration of the incredible shapes hiding in the small world, requires the use of a stereoscopic microscope - also called stereomicroscope or stereo microscope.

In summary, a stereo microscope is a high-magnification lens through which you can observe three-dimensional subjects. It is a rather simple optical-mechanical system: a so-called head with two observation tubes, an inner prism and lenses system and an apical lens (or objective). The knob on the column lets you move the head in order to manually focus the subject. The result is a three-dimensional view of the subject at magnifications typically ranging between 5X and 200X.

Here it is the drawing of a Olympus SZ Series trinocular stereomicroscope:

Features to look for

The features that you need to look for in a stereo microscope start obviously from the system's optical quality, which should ensure high definition, contrast and clarity of the image from the center to the edges of the field of view. The field of view should be as broad as possible and wide-field eyepieces - marked with the "WF" acronym (Wide Field) - are a must.

The focusing distance should be good enough to let you work with the fingers under the objective. Classic microscopes like the Olympus SZ40 - or its many clones - ensure about 100mm of focusing distance, which is optimal. Depending on the case, this distance can be varied - increased or decreased - through the use of additional lenses.

The magnification of stereo microscope may be in steps, fixed, or continuously variable (zoom). For routine investigations, in which you need to make comparisons or measurements in series, it is preferable to have fixed magnifications (eg. 10X, 20X, 40X). Some microscopes have graduated zoom knobs with click-stops at the main steps of magnification.

Standard eyepieces have a magnification of 10X, but they can be interchanged with 15X, 20X, 25X or 30X eyepieces, which increase the total magnification without varying the working distance. The total magnification of the microscope is the product of the magnification of the eyepiece and that of the objective. For example, with a 10X eyepieces and a 1X objective you will get a total magnification of 10X (10 x 1 = 10); with a 20X eyepiece the total magnification becomes 20X.

But also the magnification of the objective can be varied thanks to the aforementioned auxiliary lenses, usually with 0.3X, 0.5X, 1.5X, 2.0X magnifications. These auxiliary lenses vary the total magnification and vary the working distance. For example, with a 10X eyepiece, a 1X objective and a 2X auxiliary lens you get 20X total magnification. The same would be obtained with 20X eyepieces and a 1X objective. But positive-power auxiliary lenses (1.5X, 2X) decrease the original focusing distance, while negative-power lenses (0.3X, 0.5X) increase the working distance, particularly useful when you cannot get too close to the subject under the microscope - or vice versa.

Magnification chart for Olympus SZ - and clones - stereomicroscopes

The eyepieces tubes of the modern microscopes bear the knobs for the diopter correction - usually ± 5 diopters - allowing the focused vision also to eyeglass wearers, when they don't wear them. In any case, the eyepieces born from a good optical design allow a good view also to eyeglass wearers with goggles worn, thanks to their high exit pupil. In addition, the interpupillary distance must be adjustable to adapt to our personal distance, to avoid the vision of a black field.

Lighting is a key issue. The ideal lighting is a cold-light ring - or close to daylight, about 5500°K. Today there are many affordable models of Fluorescent or LED ring illuminators, adjustable in intensity (dimmable) and capable of illuminating without creating shadows.

The photographic opportunities through the microscope are considerable. You can choose between trinocular microscopes - in which a third photo/video tube is connected to an analog/digital camera or to a USB camcorder - or you can find specific adapters for the standard binocular tubes. You can ask for such adapters to the online shops, directly to manufacturers or to eBay ads. And there are already several forums where you can post messages and perceive the secrets of the photography through a microscope - the photomicrography.

For citation purposes

aberration

a term which, if used to denote a number of individuals within a species, unequivocally signifies infrasubspecific rank.

abbreviation

a shortened form of a word or title. In zoological works genus-group names cited in binomial names of species are often abbreviated to one or two letters, which should always be followed by a full stop, and not used on the first mention of a name; similarly for specific names cited in trinomial names of subspecies.

act, nomenclatural

a published act which affects the nomenclatural status of a scientific name or the typification of a nominal taxon; available nomenclatural act - one that is published in an available work; invalid - any nomenclatural act which is not valid under the provisions of the Code; unavailable - one published in an unavailable work; valid - one that is accepted under the provisions of the Code ie the earliest available act not contravening any provision of the Code.

adopt

to use an unavailable name as the valid name of a taxon in a way which establishes it as a new name with its own authorship and date

affinis, afin.

affinity, relationship, sometimes misleadingly employed as a synonym for phenetic similarity. (= akin to).

aggregate

a group of species, other than a subgenus, within a genus; or a group of subspecies within a species. An aggregate may be denoted by a group name interpolated in parentheses.

alii, aliorum, al.

others, of others.

allotype

paratype of the opposite sex to the holotype; term not regulated by
the Code.

ambiguous name

see Nomen ambiguum.

animal

for the purposes of the Code includes Metazoa and protistan taxa whenever they are or have been treated as animals for nomenclatural purposes.

anonymous

- of a work: one that does not state the name(s) of the author(s)

- of a name or nomenclatural act: one of which the authorship cannot be determined from the work itself

- of an author: one whose identity cannot be determined from the work itself

application to the commission

any zoologist may submit nomenclatural problems to the Commission. These are published in the Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature.

approved name

one given approval by the Commission for use in nomenclature.

apud

with, in the work of.

articles

the mandatory provisions of the Code.

artificial classification

classification based on convenient or conspicuous diagnostic characters without attention to characters indicating relationship; often a classification based on a single arbitrarily chosen character, rather than an evaluation of the totality of characters.

as such

being strictly what has been cited e.g. 'a photograph as such' is an illustration on light-sensitive paper, not one printed in a work.

auctorum, auct., auctt.

of authors, often given to indicate that a name is used in the sense of a number of ubsequent authors and not in its (different) sense as established by the original author.

auctorum non, auct. non

not of authors.

author

the person(s) to whom a work, a scientific name, or a nomenclatural act is attributed.

author citation

the name of the authority for a taxon name, when cited, should follow the taxon name without any intervening marks or punctuation. Its citation is optional and may or may not be followed immediately by the year. Examples:-

A.... Smith 1970

Smith was the first person to validly publish the name A...., which he did in 1970.

A.... Smith in Jones 1970

Smith was the first person to validly publish the name A...., which he did within a publication by Jones in 1970.

A.... Smith 1970 ex Jones 1942

Smith was the first person to validly publish the name A.... in 1970, but which had formerly been used by Jones in 1942, but which he had never validly published.

A.... b.... (Smith) 1970 or A.... b.... (Smith 1970)

Smith was the first person to validly publish the species name b.... in 1970, but which at the time he put in combination with another genus name.

A.... c.... (Smith) Jones

Smith was the first person to validly publish the species name c...., but which at that time he put in combination with another genus name. Jones is responsible for the transfer of the species to genus A.....

A.... b.... [Smith]

The name was originally published anonymously but from external information the author is known to be Smith.

A.... Smith [1970]

Date of publication established solely from external evidence e.g. publisher's correspondence.

A.... Smith 1970 non Jones 1860 nec Brown 1967

The genus referred to is specifically that described by Smith 1970 and not those homonymous genera described by Jones 1860 or Brown 1967.

A.... b.... Smith 1970 sensu Jones 1977 A.... b.... Smith : Jones A.... b.... : Jones

These all mean that A.... b.... was originally published by Smith, but that this refers specifically to a subsequent, more restricted usage of the name i.e. as used by Jones (: may sometimes be given as ;).

A.... b.... auct. non Smith 1970 A.... b.... sensu auct. non Smith 1970

These refer to instances of the use of A.... b.... by all authors for a taxon which is other than that as published by Smith 1970.

A.... b.... Smith, partim Jones A.... b.... Smith, emend. Jones

These both mean Smith originally published A.... b...., but later Jones further subdivided the species so that its diagnosis was more limited than that originally published by Smith. See also Emended diagnosis.

authority

the name of the author of a taxonomic name, cited after the name. See also: Authorship, Author citation.

authorship

the author of a taxonomic name is the person who alone is responsible for both the name and for the conditions which make it available i.e. the diagnosis etc. See also: Author, Author citation.

available name

any name which conforms to all mandatory provisions of the Code. There are general requirements of publication and date, language, name formation etc. An available name is not necessarily a valid name, as an available name may be in synonymy. Conversely a valid name must always be an available one. Available names include nomen inviolatum, - conservandum, - perfectum, - vanum, - correctum, - substitutum, - imperfectum
(all).

binomen or binomial name

the combination of two names, the first being a generic name and the second a specific name, that together constitute the scientific name of a species; any interpolated names are not counted as components of a binomen.

binomial nomenclature

the system of nomenclature in which a species, but no taxon or any other rank, is denoted by a combination of two names

binomial nomenclature, principle of

see Principle of binomial nomenclature.

bulletin of zoological nomenclature

the official periodical of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.

caste

in social insects, a group of individuals, belonging to a particular species or subspecies, differing in form from other groups of individuals within the same species od subspecies (e.g. in bees - workers, drones, queens).

change, mandatory

a change in spelling of a name required by the Code.

character

any attribute of organisms used for recognizing, differentiating or classifying taxa.

cheirnym

see Manuscript name.

citatus, - a, - um, cit.

cited.

cladistic classification

classification based on 'recency of common descent', i.e. categories depend on the position of the branching points on the inferred phylogenetic tree.

classification

the ordering of organisms into groups on the basis of their relationships.

code

International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. An Authoritative document containing a system of rules and recommendations to be followed in giving a scientific name to an animal or animal group. Adopted by the International Congresses of Zoology (more recently the International Union of Biological Sciences)and Administered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. The most recent version of the Code is the Fourth Edition published in September 1999 and taking effect on January 1st 2000.

collective group

an assemblage of species, or stages of organisms (e.g. eggs or larvae), that cannot be allocated with confidence to nominal genera. Names proposed or used for collective groups are treated as genus-group names but special provisions apply to them [Article 42.2.1].

collective-group name

- a name established expressly for a collective group

- a name established for a nominal genus or subgenus and later used for a collective group

collection

an assemblage of specimens compiled and maintained for purposes of study and/or display.

combinatio novum, comb.nov.

new combination - a combination validly published for the first time.

combination

the name of a species or subspecies consisting of the name of the genus followed by the specific or specific plus subspecific names.

commission

International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). The duties and operation of the Commission are regulated by the Code, and the powers and duties of the Commission are authorized by the International Zoological Congresses.

common name

see Vernacular name.

compound name

one that is formed by the union of two or more basic components, excluding prefixes and suffixes. e.g. striatoradiatus, novaeguineae, fritzmuelleri, c-album.

conditional

- of the proposal of a name or a type fixation: one made with stated reservations

- of the inclusion of a taxon in another taxon at a higher rank: made with stated reservations

confer, cf.

compare.

congenericity

congeneric species are species belonging to the same genus. Congeneric applied to generic names usually implies that the names refer to the same taxon i.e. synonymous genera.

conserve

to set aside or modify any provision of the Code so as, e.g.

- to preserve or permit the use of a name as a valid name by removing the obstacles to such use

- to preserve the use of a name in a taxonomic sense that would otherwise be incorrect

- to deem a work to be published or available despite its not satisfying
the normal criteria

In each case conservation is by a ruling of the Commission using its plenary power.

conserved name

a name otherwise unavailable or invalid that the Commission, by the use of its plenary power, has enabled to be used as a valid name by removal of the known obstacles to such use (see CONSERVE).

conspecificity

conspecific subspecies are subspecies belonging to the same species. Conspecific applied to species names usually implies that the names refer to the same taxon i.e. synonymous species.

coordination, principle of

see Principle of coordination.

corrected name

see Nomen correctum.

correct original spelling

see Original spelling.

corrigendum

a note published by an author, editor, or publisher of a work, expressly to cite one or more errors or omissions in that work together with their correction.

cotype

a term not recognized by the Code, formerly used for either syntype or paratype, but that should not now be used in zoological nomenclature [Recommendation 73E].

date of publication

of a work (and of a contained name and nomenclatural act): the date on which copies of the work become available by purchase or free distribution. If the actual date is not known, the date to be adopted is regulated by the provisions of Article 21.2-7.

declaration

a minor amendment to the Code for immediate incorporation, published in the Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature, to remain in force until ratified or rejected by future International Zoological Congresses.

deem

to consider or rule something to be what it may or may not be.

definition

a statement in words that purports to give those characters which, in combination, uniquely distinguish a taxon [Articles 12 and 13].

denied name

see Nomen negatum.

description

a more or less complete statement of the observed characters of a taxon, without any special emphasis on those which distinguish it from other closely related taxa. See also: Definition, Diagnosis, Original description, Redescription.

designation

the nomenclatural act of an author or the Commission in fixing, by an express statement, the name-bearing type of a newly or previously established nominal genus, subgenus, species, or subspecies.

original designation

the designation of the name-bearing type of a nominal taxon when it is established.

subsequent designation

the designation of the name-bearing type of a nominal taxon published after the nominal taxon was established.

diacritic marks

Article 27 rules that diacritic marks, apostrophes or diaereses are not to be used in a taxonomic name and are to be deleted from such names originally published with them. [See Article 32.5.2]. The German umlaut sign deleted from a vowel should be replaced by 'e' inserted after the vowel, but only for taxonomic names based on German words and published before 1985.

diagnosis

a statement in words that purports to give those characters which differentiate the taxon from other taxa with which it is likely to be confused.

diagnostic characters

the characters, or most important characters, which distinguish a taxon from other similar or closely related taxa. See also: Diagnosis.

differential diagnosis

see Diagnosis.

direction

a term now abandoned; under previous editions of the Code, a statement published by the Commission, giving the result of a vote completing or correcting a ruling given in an Opinion. Directions have been replaced by Official Corrections.

disclaimer

a statement in a work, by an author, editor or publisher, that

- the entire work or

- all or specified names and nomenclatural acts in it are to be excluded for purposes of zoological nomenclature

division

- a rank that if treated as a division of a genus or subgenus is deemed to be of subgeneric rank for the purposes of nomenclature

- a taxon at the rank of division

doubtful name

see Nomen dubium.

dubious name

see Nomen dubium.

elevation in rank

see Status.

elide

to deliberately omit one or more letters within a word (as in Article 29.3.1.1).

elimination, fixation by

see Fixation by elimination

emendation

any demonstrably intentional change in the original spelling of an available name [Article 33.2], other than a mandatory change [Article 34]. (Does not include emendation of the scope of application of a name, which = emended diagnosis).

justified emendation

correction of an incorrect original spelling, takes authorship and date of original spelling [Article 33.2.2].

unjustified emendation

one made for any other reason, such names have their own status in nomenclature, taking authorship and date of their publication [Article 33.2.3].

emendatus, - a, - um, emend.

emendation.

emended diagnosis

change in the scope of application of a name, involving a change in the diagnosis of the taxon. Use for : Redefinition. (Not the same as emendation).

entity, taxonomic

see Taxon.

erect

see Establish.

error

in a name, or other word: an incorrect spelling.

copyist's error

an incorrect spelling made in copying.

inadvertent error

an incorrect spelling, such as a lapsus calami, or a copyist's or a printer's error, not intended by the original author [Article 32.5.1].

printer's error

an incorrect spelling made in type-setting (often called typographical error).

establish

used of a name = to make available.

et alia, et al.

and others.

ex

from, according to. Sometimes used within an authority citation.

ex nomine

by or under that name.

ex parte, e.p.

in part. See pro parte.

excluded name

a name that under Article 1.3 cannot be an available name, or one that has been disclaimed.

exclusus, - a, - um, excl.

excluded - used to indicate elements included in a taxon by a previous author or authors, but considered not to belong to it by the writer and excluded from it by him.

extant

- of a taxon: having living representatives

- of a specimen: still in existence

extinct

of a taxon: having no living representatives.

family group

the highest-ranking group of taxa whose names are fully regulated by the Code. The family group includes taxa at the ranks of superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe, and any other rank below superfamily and above the genus group that may be required, such as subtribe.

fide

on the authority of, or with reference to publication, to a cited published statement.

field identification

the determination of the taxonomic identity of an individual specimen, under field conditions, often with the aid of keys etc. See also : Identification.

first reviser, principle of the

See Principle of the first reviser.

fixation

a general term for determination of name bearing type, whether by designation, or by any other means.

fixation by elimination

the supposed fixation of a type species by the subsequent transfer of all but one of the originally included nominal species from a genus. Not in itself an available method of type fixation [Article 69.4; but see Article 69.1.1].

forgotten name

see Nomen oblitum.

form (forma)

- a term that if published after 1960 is deemed to denote infrasubspecific rank but that if published before 1961 is to be interpreted according to Article 45.6.3-4

- those individuals of a species or subspecies differing, in a stated way, from other individuals within the taxon (e.g. larval and adult forms, male and female forms, ecological forms, and seasonal forms)

fomrulae, zoological

modifications of available names throughout a taxonomic group by the addition of a standard prefix or suffix in order to indicate that the taxa named are members of that group [Article 1.3.7]. Zoological formulae are excluded from the provisions of the Code. The suffixes of family-group names denote ranks, not taxonomic groups, and do not form zoological formulae.

generitype

see Type species.

generotype

see Type species.

genotype

a term not recognized by the Code, formerly used for type species, but that should not now be used in zoological nomenclature [Recommendation 67A].

genus-group

the taxonomic categories genus and subgenus, including collective groups and ichnotaxa at the genus-group level.

hapantotype

one or more preparations consisting of directly related individuals representing distinct stages in the life cycle, which together form the name-bearing type in an extant species of protistan [Article 72.5.4]. A hapantotype, while a series of individuals, is a holotype that must not be restricted by lectotype selection; however, if a hapantotype is found to contain individuals of more than one species, components may be excluded until it contains individuals of only one species [Article 73.3.2].

hierarchy, taxonomic

a system of classification based on a sequence of taxonomic categories rankedby their increasing levels of inclusiveness.

holotype

a single specimen (except in the case of a hapantotype) designated or indicated the type specimen by the original author at the time of publication of the original description.

homonym

each of two or more identical but independently proposed names for the same or different taxa.

junior homonym

later published of two homonyms (= a preoccupied name).

senior homonym

earlier published of two homonyms.

primary homonym

each of two or more identical species names, which, at the time of original publication, were proposed in combination with the same generic name i.e. the species were named for different although homonymous genera.

secondary homonym

each of two or more identical species names, which, at the time of original publication, were proposed in combination with different generic names, but which, through subsequent transference, have come to bear the same combination of generic and specific name.

homonym citation

authorship for two or more homonyms may be cited using 'non' and/or 'nec' as follows:- A.... Smith 1947 non Jones 1958 nec Brown 1960.

homonymy, principle of

see Principle of homonymy.

horizontal classification

classification which stresses grouping together taxa in a similar stage of evolution, rather than location on the same phyletic line. See also : Vertical classification.

hybrid name

names of progeny of two individuals belonging to different taxa, names given to hybrids are not normally available, as they are individuals, not populations, and hence not taxa. See Articles 1.3.3, 17, 23.8 for treatment of names given to hybrids and to taxa or hybrid origin.

ibidem, ibid, ib.

the same, in the same place.

ichnotaxon

a taxon based on the (fossilized) work of an animal, including fossilized trails, tracks and burrows (trace fossils), made by an animals. Such names are covered by provisions of the current Code.

iconotype

a drawing or photograph of a type specimen.

identification

the placing of individual specimens into previously established taxa, by deductive procedures. The determination of the taxonomic identity of an individual. See also : Field identification, Misidentification.

illegitimate name

see Invalid name.

imperfect name

see Nomen imperfectum.

in litteris, in litt.

in correspondence, communicated in writing, used for an unpublished source acknowledgement.

inappropriate name

a name that denotes a character, a quality, or an origin not possessed by the taxon bearing that name.

incertae sedis

of a taxon - one of uncertain taxonomic position, 'of uncertain seat'.

incorrect subsequent spelling

see Subsequent spelling.

indication

- publication of evidence that a name proposed before 1931 is available, despite the absence of a definition or description [Article 12.2]. See also Typification.

ineditus, - a, - um

unpublished

infraspecific name

a general term for any name below the rank of species. The term includes subspecific and infrasubspecific names.

infrasubspecific

of a category or name - of lower rank than the subspecies, and, as such, not subject to regulation by the Code e.g. form, race, variety. Article 1.3.4.

international code of zoological nomenclature

see Code.

international commission

see Commission.

international zoological congresses

the legislative bodies responsible for the rules of the Code and for authorization of the activities of the Commission.

interpolated name

a name placed within parentheses

- after a generic name to denote a subgenus

- after a genus-group name to denote an aggregate of species, or

- after a specific name to denote an aggregate of subspecies [Article 6]. Names used in this way are not counted as one of the names in a binomen or trinomen

invalid name

any name (available or unavailable) given to a taxon which is not the valid name.

invalidation

the action of making a name invalid. May be brought about by suppression by the Commission.

inviolate name

see Nomen inviolatum.

junior homonym

the later published of two or more identical but independently proposed names for the same or different taxa. (= a preoccupied name). See also : Homonym.

junior synonym

the later published of two or more different names applied to one and the same taxon. See also : Synonym.

justifiable emendation

see Emendation.

key

a tabulation of diagnostic characters of taxa in dichotomous couplets to facilitate rapid identification. Key character - a character of special utility in a key.

kingdom

the highest ranked category employed in the taxonomic hierarchy. (Editions of the Code prior to 4th referred to a single taxon "Animalia", not widely accepted today, at the rank of kingdom.).

lapsus calami

a 'slip of the pen', an unintentional error, especially in spelling taxonomic names. (Compare : Unjustifiable emendation).

law of homonymy

see Homonymy, principle of.

law of priority

see Priority, principle of.

legitimate name

see Valid name.

lectotype

one of several syntypes, designated by any author after the original publication of a species name as the 'type specimen' for the taxonomic name. Designated only where there was no original holotype [Article 74].

list of available names in zoology

the cumulative term for those parts of the List of Available Names in Zoology which have been adopted by the Commission under Article 79.

line precedence

when two different names for the same taxon are first published in the same publication, then the one which appears on the earlier line has line precedence. (See also : Page precedence). Line precedence does not necessarily mean priority as well - this is determined by the action of the first reviser.

loco citato, loc. cit., l.c.

in the place cited, used to avoid repetition of a bibliographic reference already given.

mandatory change

see Change, mandatory

manuscript name

an unpublished taxonomic name, may be intended for eventual publication or be used in correspondence or in public speech. Have no standing in nomenclature until they are acceptably published.

mihi, m.

to me, dative singular of ego, I. Used after a name to indicate the writer's responsibility for its proposal.

misapply

to apply, deliberately or otherwise, a name in a sense which is not correct under the provisions of the Code (e.g. in a manner not in accord with the name-bearing type).

misidentification

the misapplication of a previously established taxon name to an individual specimen. See also : Identification.

monotypy

a situation where a genus group taxon is established with only one immediately subordinate taxon. e.g. a genus containing only one species. See also Subsequent monotypy.

mutatis characteribus, mut. char.

with the characters changed (by), used in same way as emendatus.

naked name

see Nomen nudum.

name-bearing type

the type genus, type species, holotype, lectotype, series of syntypes (which, together, form the name- bearing type), neotype, type slide, or hapantotype, that provides the objective standard of reference whereby the application of the name of a taxon can be determined.

natio

race.

natural classification

classification based on inferences concerning the phylogenetic relationships of animals (i.e. evolutionary classification).

nec

and not (of), nor (of).

neotype

a specimen selected as type specimen subsequent to the original description in cases where the original holotype, or lectotype, or all paratypes, or all syntypes are lost or destroyed, or suppressed by the Commission.

new combination

see Comb. nov.

new name

see Nomen novum.

new replacement name

see Nomen novum

new scientific name

a scientific name, available or unavailable, when first proposed for a taxon.

new status

see Status.

nobis, nob., n.

to us, dative plural of ego, I. Used after a name to indicate the author's responsibility for its proposal.

nomen ambiguum

ambiguous name, one which has been used so long by different authors in different senses that it has become a persistent cause of error and confusion.

nomen collectivum

see Collective group.

nomen conservandum (nomina conservata)

names classed as available and valid by action of the ICZN exercising its Plenary Powers. Includes rulings to conserve junior synonyms in place of rejected forgotten names (nomen oblitum). Such names are entered on the Official Lists.

nomen correctum (nomina correcta)

corrected names or 'improved' names, available names which are mandatory and allowable emendations of imperfect names or of taxonomic names higher than family (which are not subject to name form and ending regulations). Do not depend on transfer in taxon rank or assignment. (= an emended name).

nomen dubium (nomina dubia)

doubtful or dubious names, names which are not certainly applicable to any known taxon or for which the evidence is insufficient to permit recognition of the taxon to which they belong. May possess availability conducive to uncertainty and instability.

nomen imperfectum (nomina imperfecta)

imperfect names, available names which when originally published met all mandatory requirements of the Code (i.e. met all criteria of availability - Articles 10-20) but which contained some defect needing correction, such as names incorporating hyphens, diacritical marks or apostrophes, higher taxon names using an incorrectly formed stem.

nomen inquirendum (nomina inquirenda)

'names under enquiry'. See Nomen dubium.

nomen inviolatum (nomina inviolata)

inviolate names, all available names not subject to any sort of alteration from their originally published form i.e. they were correct as originally published and need no correction or emendation.

nomen negatum (nomina negata)

denied names, unavailable names which are incorrect original spellings as defined by the Code.

nomen non rite publicatum., nom. non rite public.

name not properly published. See : Unpublished name, Manuscript name.

nomen novum (= nom nov)

new name which is expressly proposed as a replacement name for a preoccupied name, automatically takes the same type and type locality. (= a replacement name or substitute name for a preoccupied name). Commonly applied to names proposed to replace junior homonyms.

nomen nudum (nomina nuda)

a Latin term referring to a name that, if published before 1931, fails to conform to Article 12; or, if published after 1930, fails to conform to Article
13. A nomen nudum is not an available name, and therefore the same name may be made available later for the same or a different concept; in such a case it would take authorship and date [Articles 50, 21] from that act of establishment, not from any earlier publication as a nomen nudum.

nomen nullum (nomina nulla)

null names, unavailable names which as defined by the Code are non demonstrably intentional changes of an original spelling i.e. a form of incorrect subsequent spelling.

nomen oblitum (nomina oblita)

forgotten names, senior synonyms which have remained unused in the literature for many years. Have been treated differently by different editions of the Code, and remain unavailable names.

nomen perfectum (nomina perfecta)

perfect names, available names which when originally published met all mandatory requirements of the Code and needed no correction of any kind, but which are validly alterable by change of ending.

nomen protectum

"protected name" applied to a name which has been given precedence over it unused senior synonym or senior homonym relegated to the status of nomen oblitum (see Article 23.9.2).

nomen substitutum (nomina substituta)

substitute name, any available name whether new or not, proposed as replacement for any invalid name, such as a junior homonym. A substitute name proposed specifically for a preoccupied name is a nomen novum.

nomen translatum (nomina translata)

transferred names, available names which have been altered (usually in endings only), the change depending on transfer from one taxonomic rank to another, or from one taxon to another. e.g. Spirifer ambiguus changed to new combination Composita ambigua: Orthidae downgraded to Orthinae etc. Authorship and date remains as for original name.

nomen triviale

trivial name, an expression used by Linnaeus and others for the specific name. Applied by some authors in same sense as vernacular name.

nomen vanum (nomina vana)

vain names, available names consisting of unjustified but intentional emendations of previously published names. Have status in nomenclature with their own authorship and date.

nomen vetitum (nomina vetita)

impermissible names, unavailable names published for divisions of the genus group other than genus and subgenus, which are not accepted by the Code. e.g. a subsection of a subgenus.

nomenclatural status

of a name, nomenclatural act or work: its standing in nomenclature (i.e. its availability or otherwise, and in the case of a name its spelling, the typification of the nominal taxon it denotes, and its precedence relative to other names).

nomenclature

the description of new taxa or alterations to the concept of previously described taxa which involve changes in the names of taxa.

nominal taxon

a named taxon, objectively defined by its type taxon. Thus the nominal family MUSCIDAE is always the one to which its nominal type genus, Musca, belongs.

nominate subordinate taxon

a subordinate taxon which bears the same names as its immediate higher taxon (with endings altered according to rank for higher taxa). Thus Grus grus is the nominate species of the genus Grus.

nominotypical taxon

the nominal taxon at a subordinate rank within the family group, the genus group, or the species group that contains the name-bearing type of a divided taxonomic taxon of that group.

null name

see Nomen nullum.

numerical taxonomy

study of the relationships of taxa by the application of numerical similarity values to characters so as to rank into categories based on degree of overall similarity.

numericlature

an attempt to express the natural order (i.e. classification) of animals in numbers, so that each taxon name is represented by a numerical code, the structure of which indicates its taxonomic position, rank and affinities.

objective

demonstrably true, not a matter of individual opinion; for contrast with subjective.

objective synonym

each of two or more different names applied to one and the same taxon based on the same type. See also : Synonym.

official correction

a correction, issued by the Commission, or an error or omission in a previously published opinion. See also : Direction.

official index

a list of names or works suppressed or declared invalid by action of the Commission. The following are compiled and maintained:-
- Official Index of Rejected and Invalid Family-Group Names in Zoology
- Official Index of Rejected and Invalid Generic Names in Zoology
- Official Index of Rejected and Invalid Specific Names in Zoology
- Official Index of Rejected and Invalid Works in Zoological Nomenclature

official list

a list of names or works which have been conserved or declared valid by action of the Commission. The following are compiled and maintained:-
- Official List of Family-Group Names in Zoology
- Official List of Generic Names in Zoology
- Official List of Specific Names in Zoology
- Official List of Works Approved as Available for Zoological Nomenclature

see also : List of Available Names in Zoology.

offsprint

see Separate.

opere citato, op. cit.

in the work cited, used to avoid the repetition of part of a bibliographic reference already given.

opinion

a decision of the Commission involving a question of application of the Code to a particular name and situation, published in the Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature.

original description

the description of a nominal taxon when it is established. See also : Description, Original diagnosis.

original diagnosis

a formal statement of characters which distinguish a taxon from other similar or closely related taxa, published at the time of proposal of a new taxonomic name. See also : Diagnosis, Original description.

original publication

- the work in which a name or nomenclatural act was first published

- of a name or nomenclatural act: publication for the first time

original spelling

the original spelling of a name is to be kept as the 'correct original spelling' unless it does not meet the requirements of the Code Article 32.5.

- incorrect original spelling - an original spelling that is incorrect

- multiple original spellings - two or more different original spellings for the same name

originally included nominal species

of a nominal genus-group taxon: the nominal species deemed to be originally included under Article 67.2.

orthographia mutata, orth. mut.

with an altered spelling (by).

page precedence

when two names for the same taxon are first published in the same publication, then the one which appears on the earlier page has precedence. Page precedence does not necessarily mean priority as well - this is determined by the action of the first reviser. See also : Line precedence.

paralectotype

any one of the original syntypes remaining after the selection of a lectotype.

paraype

every specimen in a type series other than the holotype which were before the author at the time of preparation of the original description and were so designated and indicated there.

part of the list of available names in zoology

A list, adopted by the Commission under Article 79, of available names in a major taxonomic field.

perfect name

see Nomen perfectum.

phenetic classification

classification based on degree of overall similarity.

phenotype

the total characteristics of an individual (i.e. its appearance) resulting from interaction between its genotype and its environment.

plenary powers

the Commission is empowered by use of its Plenary Powers to prevent the application of a rule of the Code where such application in a particular case would disturb the stability or universality or cause confusion in zoological nomenclature. Articles 78, 81.

plesiotype

a specimen identified by a subsequent author as belonging to a particular species.

potentially valid name

an available name which is not objectively invalid.

precedence

the order of seniority of available names or nomenclatural acts determined

- by application of the Principle of Priority as specified in Article 23, or

- in the case of simultaneously published names or acts, as specified in Article 24, or

- by a ruling of the Commission using its Plenary Power

preprint

a work published, with its own specified date of publication (imprint date), in advance of its later reissue as part of a collective or cumulative work. Preprints may be published works for the purposes of zoological nomenclature. See also : Separate.

preoccupied name

the later published of two identical but independently proposed names for the same or different taxa. = Junior homonym.

prevailing usage

see Usage, prevailing

primary hononym

each of two or more identical species names, which, at the time of original publication, were proposed in combination with the same generic name i.e. the species were named for different, though homonymous genera. See also : Homonym.

principle of binominal nomenclature

the principle that the scientific name of a species, and not of a taxon at any other rank, is a combination of two names (a binomen); the use of a trinomen for the name of a subspecies and of uninominal names for taxa above the species group is in accord with the Principle. See Articles 5, 11.4.

principle of coordination

the principle that within the family group, genus group or species group a name established for a taxon at any rank in the group is deemed to be simultaneously established with the same author and date for taxa based on the same name-bearing type at other ranks in the group [Articles 36, 43, 46].

principle of the first reviser

the principle that the relative precedence of two or more names or nomenclatural acts published on the same date, or of different original spellings of the same name, is determined by the First Reviser [Article 24.2].

principle of homonymy

the principle that the name of each taxon must be unique. Consequently a name that is a junior homonym of another name must not be used as a valid name [Article 52].

principle of priority

the principle that the valid name of a taxon is the oldest available name applied to it (taking into consideration the other provisions of Article 23), provided that the name is not invalidated by any provision of the Code or by any ruling by the Commission [Article 23].

principle of typification

the principle that each nominal taxon in the family group, genus group or species group has, actually or potentially, a name-bearing type fixed to provide the objective standard of reference by which the application of the name is determined [Article 61] (see Typification).

priority, of a name or nomenclatural act

seniority fixed by the date of availability.

priority, principle of

see Principle of priority.

pro parte, p. p.

in part, used in author citations to show that only part of a taxon, as defined by a previous author, is being referred to by the writer.

proposal to commission

see Application to commission.

protected name

See Nomen protectum.

protistan

an organism classified in the Protista. Some such organisms (e.g. those formerly classified as Protozoa) are usually treated as animals for the purposes of nomenclature, and when so treated their names are regulated by the Code [Article 1.1.1].

provisions

term equivalent to rules.

publication

- any published work

- the issuing of a work conforming to Articles 8 and 9

published name

any name which is printed and circulated (i.e. meets the criteria of publication as stated by the Code Articles 8 & 9), may be available, unavailable, valid or invalid.

RACE

an infrasubspecific category which has no status under the Code.

RANK

the level, for nomenclatural purposes, of a taxon in a taxonomic hierarchy (e.g. all families are for nomenclatural purposes at the same rank, which lies between superfamily and subfamily).

recommendation by commission

published along with the Code, indicate the best procedure in cases not strictly covered by application of the rules. Compliance with them is not mandatory but highly advisable.

redefinition

see Emended diagnosis.

redescription

a more or less complete statement of the observed characters of a taxon, without any special emphasis on those which distinguish it from other closely related taxa, including new or altered information to that usually given in the description.

reduction in status

see Status.

referral

transfer of a subordinate taxon from one taxon to another e.g. species removed from one genus and referred to another, genus removed from one family and referred to another.

refusal by commission

the Commission may refuse to use its Plenary Powers in any given case proposed to it. In such a case the Opinion rendered is to specify the name(s) to be used in the case in question, and the action (if any) to be taken.

reinstate

with reference to a name previously rejected as being a junior secondary homonym: to treat it as a valid name if the conditions of Article 59.4 are met.

reject

to set aside, in accord with the provisions of the Code and, in the case of a name, taxonomic judgement,

- a work for the purposes of zoological nomenclature, or

- a name in favour of another name

rejected name

- a name which, under the provisions of the Code, cannot be used as a valid name and which is set aside in favour of another name

- a name which, as a matter of taxonomic judgement, is either treated as a junior subjective synonym of a name used as valid or is believed not to be applicable to the taxon under consideration

replacement name

see Nomen novum and Nomen substitutum.

reprint

for the purposes of the Code, the same as a separate.

reviser, first

see First reviser.

revision

the presentation of new material or new interpretations integrated with previous knowledge through summary and reevaluation for a particular taxon.

rite

properly, correctly, according to the rules.

rules

the Articles of the Code but not titles, Recommendations, and Examples. The rules are mandatory. A term equivalent to provisions.

saltem

at least.

scheda, sched.

label (or a specimen).

scientifica name

formal nomenclatural designation of a taxon. = Taxonomic name. Conforms to Code Article 1, as opposed to a vernacular name. A scientific name is not necessarily available.

secondary homonym

each of two or more identical species names, which, at the time of original publication, were proposed in combination with different generic names, but which, through subsequent transference, have come to bear the same combination of generic and specific names. See also : Homonym.

section

- a rank that if treated as a division of a genus or subgenus is deemed to be of subgeneric rank for the purposes of nomenclature [Article 10.4]

- a taxon at the rank of section

secundum, sec.

according to.

sedis incertae

see incertae sedis.

senior homonym

the earlier published of two or more identical but independently proposed names for the same or different taxa. See also : Homonym.

senior synonym

the earlier published of two or more different names applied to one and the same taxon. See also : Synonym.

sensu

a latin term meaning "in the sense of". Often used to refer to the usage of a name by a (cited) author in a sense different from that of the original author or some other previous author.

sensu amplo

see sensu lato.

sensu lato, sens. lat., s.l.

in the broad sense i.e. of a taxon - including all its subordinate taxa and/or other taxa sometimes considered as distinct.

sensu stricto, sens. str., s.s.

in the strict sense, in the narrow sense. Most often used to indicate the nominate subordinate taxon (e.g. A.... b.... s.s. = A.... b.... b....; A.... s.s. = A.... (A....) etc.). Or it may just indicate exclusion of similar taxa sometimes united with it.

separate

a copy (reprint or offprint) of a work contained in a periodical, book or other larger work, intended for distribution (usually privately by the author(s) detached from the larger work which contains it but without its own specified date of publication (imprint date). The advance distribution of separates after 1999 does not constitute publication for purposes of zoological nomenclature.

seu

either, or.

sic

this, to signalize exact transcription.

sine

without.

species group

the taxonomic categories species and subspecies.

species indeterminata, sp. indet.

undetermined species, one not identifiable with the description for a name already published. Usually given with a generic name only e.g. A.... sp. indet.

species inquirendum (= species inquirenda)

a species to be queried, a doubtfully identified species requiring further investigation. See also Nomen inquirendum.

specific name

the second name in a binomen and in a trinomen [Article 5].

spelling, original

see Original spelling.

spelling, subsequent

see Subsequent spelling.

spelling, variant

see Variant spellings.

stability of nomenclature

the Preamble of the Code states 'the object of the Code is to promote stability' - one of the most important rules of the Code. If strict application of the rules of the Code threaten stability in an individual case then application of those rules may be suspended by the Commission under its Plenary Powers.

status

the status of a taxon indicates the rank (i.e. level in hierarchy of taxonomic categories) to which it belongs e.g. genus, subfamily etc. The status of a taxon may be elevated or reduced (with accompanying ending change when necessary), and this has no bearing on the authorship of the taxon. e.g. Subfamily A....inae Smith 1972 may be elevated (raised) to family A....idae Smith 1972 genus B.... Jones 1960 may be reduced (lowered) to subgenus A.... (B....) Jones 1960

status novus, stat. nov.

new status, representing a change in status.

statue of limitation

see Limitation, statute of.

strickland code

a code of nomenclature prepared by a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, first published in 1842. See also : Code.

subjective

depending on judgement, a matter of individual opinion; for contrast with objective.

subjective synonym

each of two or more different names applied to one and the same taxon based on different types, but regarded as referring to the same taxon by those who hold them to be synonyms. See also : Synonym.

subordinate taxon

a taxon at a lower rank than the taxon of the same coordinate group with which it is compared.

subsequent monotypy

the situation arising when a nominal genus or subgenus was established before 1931 without any included nominal species, and when only a single taxonomic species denoted by an available name was first subsequently referred to it [Article 69.3].

subsequent spelling

any change in the original spelling of a name becomes a subsequent spelling. See Code Article 33.

correct subsequent spelling

brought about by justified emendations of the original spelling.

incorrect subsequent spelling

a change in spelling other than a justified emendation.

subspecific name

the third name in a trinomen [Article 5.2].

substitute name

any available name, whether new or not, used to replace an older available name. See Emendation, New replacement name (Nomen novum), synonym.

suppression

a form of invalidation. A name which would be valid according to strict application of the rules of the Code, may be expressly suppressed by the Commission, under its Plenary Powers, to allow validation of another name, which would not otherwise have been valid (i.e. according to the rules of the Code); converts a previously valid name into an invalid
one.

synonym

each of two or more different names applied to one and the same taxon. See also : Junior synonym, Senior synonym, Objective synonym & Subjective synonym

synonymy

- the relationships between different names applied to the same taxon.

- a chronological list of taxonomic names which have been applied to a single taxon, including authors and dates. When this includes bibliographic references for the name = Full Bibliographical Synonymy.

syntype

each specimen of a type series from which neither a holotype nor a lectotype has been designated. The syntypes collectively constitute the name-bearing type.

systematics

studies of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of any and all the relationships among them i.e. the science of the diversity of organisms - deals with populations, species and higher taxa.

tautonymy

one and the same name applied both to a genus-group name and to an included species-group name e.g. Bison bison.

absolute tautonymy

the identical spelling of a generic or subgeneric name and the specific or subspecific name of one of its originally included nominal species or subspecies [Articles 18, 68.4].

linnaean tautonymy

the identical spelling of a new generic or subgeneric name established before 1931 and a pre- 1758 name cited as a synonym of only one of the species or subspecies originally included in that genus [Article 68.5].

virtual tautonymy

the nearly identical spelling, or the same origin or meaning, of a generic or subgeneric name and the specific or subspecific name in a binomen or trinomen. Not a term regulated by the Code [but see Recommendation 69A.2].

taxonomic group

a taxon with all its subordinate taxa and their individuals; e.g. the taxonomic group Insecta consists of all insects and their taxa.

taxonomic name

see Scientific name.

taxonomy

studies of the relationships of taxa, including positional changes which do not involve changes in the names of taxa. See also : Nomenclature, Systematics.

tomo citato, tom. cit.

in the volume cited, used to avoid repetition of part of a bibliographic reference already given.

topotype

a specimen collected at the type locality, not necessarily part of the type series and not regulated by the Code.

topotypical population

population occurring at the type locality from which the type specimen was taken.

trace fossils

see Work of an animal.

transferred name

see Nomen translatum.

trinomen

the combination of a generic name, a specific name, and a subspecific name, that together constitute a scientific name subspecies.

trivial name

see Nomen triviale.

type

the standard of reference for determining the precise application of a name. Each taxon has, actually or potentially, a type.
- Type of a nominal species is a specimen (type specimen)
- Type of a nominal genus is the nominal species (type species)
- Type of a nominal family is the nominal genus (type genus)

type designation

determination of the type of a taxon. (= Type selection).

type genus

the type of a taxon at the family group level (i.e. family, subfamily, tribe etc.) - the nominal genus.

type horizon

the geological stratum from which the name-bearing type of a nominal species or subspecies was collected.

type host

the host species with which the name-bearing type of a nominal species or subspecies was associated.

type locality

the geographical (and, where relevant, stratigraphical) location of the occurrence of the population from which the type specimen (i.e. holotype, lectotype or neotype) was taken. Population occurring at type locality = topotypical population. Specimens collected at type locality = topotypes.

type material

a collective term for all type specimens. Zoologists should ensure that such material is transferred as quickly as possible to public institutions where their safety is guaranteed and they are accessible to other workers.

type selection

see Type designation.

type series

the series of specimens which either constitutes the name-bearing type (syntypes) of a nominal species or subspecies or from which the name-bearing type has been or may be designated.

type species

the nominal species that is the name-bearing type of a nominal genus or subgenus.

type specimen

any specimen of the type series.

typification, principle of

see Principle of typification.

typus conservandus, typ. cons.

a type to be conserved.

unavailable name

a name which does not meet all mandatory provisions of the Code. Articles 10-20 or that is an excluded name under Article 1.3. Has no status in nomenclature. See also : Available name. Unavailable names include nomen nudum, - negatum, - vetitum, - nullum, - oblitum (all).

unjustifiable emendation

see Emendation.

uninominal

consisting of a single name (e.g. names of the family group and of the genus group).

unpublished name

any name which has not been printed and circulated to meet the criteria of publication as stated by the Code Articles 7-9.

usage, prevailing

of a name: that usage of the name which is adopted by at least a substantial majority of the most recent authors concerned with the relevant taxon, irrespective of how long ago their work was published.

vain name

see Nomen vanum.

valid name

the correct name for a given taxon, which may have several available names, one of which (usually the oldest) is chosen as the valid name. The valid name is always an available name (the reverse is not always true). An invalid name may be either an available or unavailable name.

validation

the action of making a name valid.

variant spellings

different spellings of specific or subspecific names that are deemed to be identical for the purposes of the Principle of Homonymy [Article 58].

variety

a term that if published after 1960 is deemed to denote infrasubspecific rank but that if published before 1961 is to be interpreted according to Article 45.6.3-4.

vere

the true.

vernacular names

the colloquial names of taxa i.e. in any language or form other than that of zoological nomenclature. Have no status in nomenclature.

vertical classification

classification which stresses common descent and tends to unite ancestral and descendant groups of a phyletic line in a single higher taxon, separating them from contemporaneous taxa having reached a similar grade of evolutionary change. Compare : Horizontal classification.

vide

see.

work of an animal

results of the activity but not part of the animal itself e.g. tracks, trails, worm-tubes, borings (but excludes some fossil evidence such as internal moulds, external impressions and replacements). Names given to them are covered by certain rules of the Code Articles 1.2.1, 1.3.6, 10.3, 12.2.8.

zoological congresses

see International Zoological Congresses.

zoological name

the scientific name of an animal taxon in binominal nomenclature.

zoological nomenclature

the system of scientific names for animal taxa and the provisions for the formation, treatment, and use of those names.

For citation purposes

Pentax 645N: overview

Autofocus

The 645N incorporates the PENTAX-developed SAFOX IV phase-matching autofocus system to ensure accurate focusing not only on subjects with vertical orientation but also on those with horizontal orientation . - even under such poor lighting conditions as EV-1. The choice of the wider "3-Point AF" frame and the pinpoint "Spot AF" frame allows the photographer to use the most suitable focus frame for each subject and in every situation. The 645N offers three focus modes to choose from: "AF Single" activates the shutter only when the subject comes into focus; "AF Servo" lets the user release the shutter at any time. Manual Focus lets the user adjust the focus manually using the focus ring on the lens. In the manual-focus mode the focus indicator in the viewfinder provides the focus status. In the AF Servo mode, the 645N's AF system detects the subject's movement (toward or away from the camera) and "predicts" the optimum focusing point at shutter release for pinpoint focus on the subject on the move.

Data print

To keep accurate track of photographic data, the 645N lets the user imprint valuable data (exposure frame number, exposure mode, shutter speed, aperture, exposure compensation value, metering mode and lens focal length) at the bottom of the film just outside the image area.

Exposure

The 645N incorporates a newly developed Dual Six-Segment multi-pattern metering system. Two sensors positioned at both sides of the viewfinder measure the subject's lighting condition in two different areas: the wide sensor covers the entire image field, while the narrow sensor monitors the light reaching the central area of the image field. As a result, the 645N can measure the subject's lighting condition with exceptional accuracy and efficiency. In addition to the Dual Six-Segment metering, the 645N also offers the pinpoint Spot Metering and conventional Center-Weighted Metering modes. The 645N's four distinctive exposure modes allow the user to react effortlessly and efficiently to every situation and create the desired visual effect with ease: Programmed AE for adjustment-free shooting; "Aperture-Priority AE" to emphasize the depth of field; "Shutter-Priority AE" for sports and action photography; and "Metered Manual" for maximum control over exposure settings.

Motor

A built-in motor drive advances the film at the speed of 2.0 frames per second. Thanks to the high-precision pulse-count film transport mechanism, the spacing between frames is identical and the number of frames which can be taken from one roll of film has been increased from the 645 (16 frames from 120 film and 33 frames from 220 film). This motor drive also offers two film advance modes: "Single Advance" to advance one frame for each shutter release and "Consecutive Advance" to successively advance the film as long as the shutter release button is depressed. In addition, the motor drive automatically loads the film and advances it to the first frame, and winds the film into the film holder to avoid accidental exposure during film changes.

Viewfinder and panels

The 645N's viewfinder eyepiece comes equipped with a built-in diopter adjuster to adjust the viewfinder image for near- and far-sightedness within a range between -3.5 and +1 diopters. The 645N incorporates an acclaimed Natural-Bright-Matte focusing screen to provide a sharp, bright viewfinder image. In addition to the standard Center Spot Matte screen, the photographer can also select the AF Split-Image, AF Microprism or Cross-Lined Matte screen.Located at the camera's right shoulder, the LCD data panel provides the photographer with useful operational data at a glance in easy-to-understand letters, digits and symbols. An LCD data panel located at the bottom of the viewfinder indicates a full range of photographic data. Its bar-graph indicator is especially useful for checking exposure status in the metered Manual mode.

Rigid body

The 645N's body is made of rigid aluminum and protected with a glass-fiber-reinforced polycarbonate coating approximately 1.7 times thicker than a normal coating. As a result, the 645N is extremely durable and resistant to shock and wear. In addition, special mechanisms are incorporated in the 645N to ensure low-noise, low-shock operation - particularly important features in wildlife photography.

Other features

Downloads:

Pentax 645N: specifications

Specs of the Pentax 645N

Pentax 645N: lenses

For the 645N, PENTAX developed five SMC-PENTAX FA autofocus lenses to assure fast, stable autofocus operation. The 645N has perfected the renowned optical system - originally developed for and made famous by the PENTAX 645 - by adding a high-performance viewfinder lupe. As a result, the camera assures comfortable, fatigue-free eye-level shooting over long periods in the field.

SMC Pentax-FA 645 lenses (autofocus)

All existing SMC PENTAX-A 645 lenses can be used with the new 645N without any modifications (except for autofocus operation). When using A 645 lenses, the 645N gives both audible and/or visual confirmation -- as you manually turn the focusing ring.

SMC Pentax-A 645 lenses (manual focus)

Lens chart

Pentax 645N: accessories

AF-330FTZ - With a guide number of 24/119 (at ISO 100/m/ft with a 75mm standard lens) and powered by four AA-size batteries, this flash unit offers 28mm lens coverage, autofocus spot beam, contrast control, auto zoom fuction and second-cutain sync.

AF360FGZ - Guide number (ft/ISO 100) 119, 24mm lens coverage, bounce head. Requires 4 AA batteries.

AF-500FTZ - With a large guide number of 36 (at ISO100/m with a 75mm standard lens), this powerful flash unit features an auto zoom function which changes the angle of discharge according to the lens focal length. It is also equipped to satisfy a diverse range of advanced applications such as bounce flash, trailing-shutter-cutain sync, multiple emission, and slave flash.

AF-140C - Description: A TTL auto flash with a guide number of 14 (ISO 100/m) for shadowless macro flash photography. It has a 360 degree circular flash head that clips-on to the camera lens to provide even illumination for a wide variety of subjects. This macro flash unit has four separate flash tubes. Depending on lighting conditions, the tubes can be manually selected to fire either as one or two pairs, for perfect exposures and three dimentional flash effects. Amodeling light helps improve manual focusing accuracy.

Extension Cord F - 5P - 3' coiled cord connecting one of the hot shoe adapters (attached to the camera ) directly with the AF-500FTZ flash or to one of the above adapters attached to the bottom of another Pentax flash.

Extension Cord F5P (L) - 9.5' straight cord connecting one of the hot shoe adapters (attached to the camera) directly with the AF-500FTZ flash or to one of the above adapters attached to the bottom of another Pentax flash.

Hot Shoe Adapter F - For off camera flash with PZ cameras. Mounts to the hot shoe of the camera.

Hotshoe Adapter FG - For off camera flash with PZ and ZX cameras. Mounts to the hot shoe of the camera, and allows the cameras built-in flash to be used as a fill flash.

Off Camera Shoe Adapter F - Mounts to the bottom of the shoe mount on a Pentax flash and contains a tripod mount underneath.

Pentax 645NII

The original Pentax 645 was introduced in 1984. In late 1997 Pentax upgraded it to the 645N and added autofocus capability along with a line of autofocus lenses. In the Fall of 2001 they upgraded this again to the 645NII. Developed as a natural evolution of the 645N, the new 645NII incorporates all its outstanding features and adds several others that further improve performance, handling and ease of use.

Main new features of Pentax 645NII

Smooth Mirror Operation with Lock-Up Mechanism to Minimize Camera Shake

The 645NII features an upgraded mirror mechanism that swings the mirror up and down more smoothly and silently than its predecessors, generating far less jolt at shutter release and greatly reducing camera shake during exposure. It also comes equipped with a mirror lock-up mechanism to effectively minimize camera shake at the crucial moment of shutter release — a feature particularly useful when using telephoto and super-telephoto lenses, where image quality can be affected by the slightest vibration.

Pentax Functions to Customize Camera Operation to User Preference

Ten different PENTAX Functions help you fine-tune the 645NII. For instance, you can preprogram shutter-speed step (1/2EV or 1EV), exposure-compensation step (1/3EV or 1/2EV) and the availability of program shift (prohibited or permitted) to suit your operational preference and shooting style.

Data Imprinting Function to Preserve Photographic Data Permanently

The 645NII's on-the-film data imprinting function lets you save valuable photographic data permanently for future reference by automatically recording as many as 17 different types of data onto the blank space outside the image area.

Release Socket Compatible with Cable Switches and Release Timer Switch

The 645NII's release socket not only offers solid connection with the optional CS-105 and CS-130 cable switches and TS-110 release timer switch, but also allows single-action attachment and removal of these accessories. The cable switches can be used to minimize camera shake at shutter release — especially during extended exposures in the Bulb mode — while the release timer switch simplifies interval shooting by allowing you to preset starting time, the interval between exposures and exposure duration.

Other Outstanding Features

• High-precision autofocus system, with a choice of 3-point wide-area AF and spot AF
• Multi-mode metering system, with a choice of dual 6-segment metering, center-weighted metering and spot metering
• User-friendly operation with effortless dial/lever control
• Auto bracketing to capture the subject at three different exposure levels (proper/under/over)
• High-speed film winder to advance the film at approximately two frames per second
• AE lock to memorize an exposure value before recomposing the image
• A choice of four interchangeable Natural-Bright-Matte focusing screens.

Comparison between the Pentax 645, 645N, and 645N II

source: Pentaxforums

For citation purposes

Canon EOS-1V: overview

The new professional reflex Canon EOS-1V was planned for an extended use under hostile conditions.

Body. The EOS-1V body is made of aluminum and reinforced resin, while the caps - upper, bottom and dorsal - are in magnesium alloy. It turns out a light body, rigid, long-lasting, highly accurate and much technological. The 72 main joints and parts are sealed with silicone membranes, allowing the use of the camera also under rain, saltiness, sandy winds and high humidity.

Shutter. The magnetic shutter is under an electronic control and is projected in order to eliminate the operation problems and to assure an operativity and a precision constant in time. The system is constituted by a double curtain series made of super-duraluminium carbon fiber and governed by a magnet with no contacts, in order to delete the frictions caused from the powder. The energetic absorption is minimal and the optimal operating cycle of the shutter is of 150,000 releases.

Autofocus and exposure. The AF area contains 45 autofocus points, thickened in an area of 8 x 15 millimeters, and you can manually or automatically activate them regarding to the shooting situation. Each of the 45 AF points is constituted by a detector of horizontal lines, while 7 central points incorporate also a detector of vertical lines, rendering the firing extremely effective. The AIM system integrates the AF system with 6 exposure measurement modes, by measuring the exposure regarding to the position of the subject.

Functions. In order to personalize and to extend the functions of the EOS-1V, Canon released a software under Win98 and a connection between the camera and a modern computer through the USB door. Moreover, the EOS-1V feature an internal memory that stores the data belonging to 25 types of various information, among which the shutter speed, the diaphragm, the operating modes, on the base of a numerical index that the camera prints on the tail of each exposed film.

Flash. The autoflash E-TTL (Evaluative Through-The-Lens) system of the EOS-1V integrates itself with the environmental light, in order to gain optimal results, through a pre-flash shot which calculates the environmental light and corrects the flash emission for just each situation. With the dedicated Speedlite 550EX (guide number 55 / 100 ISO) the EOS-1V acquires an E-TTL control without cables even using many flash units, the modeling flash, the automatic zoom of the head from 17mm to 105mm, the manual flash, the flash exposure lock for decentralized subjects, etc. The new Macro Ring Lite MR-14EX (guide number 14 / 100 ISO) and the Macro Twin Lite MT-24EX (guide number 24 / 100 ISO) are planned for a radio control without cables, expose in E-TTL (control of the ambient light), feature Manual flash, High-Speed sync (FP flash), FEB and Modeling flash.

The EOS-1V equipped with the Power Drive Booster PB-E2 (with the Ni-MH Pack NP-E2) shots at the high speed of 10 photograms per second in AF One-Shot mode and of 9 fps in AF AI Servo mode. The booster offers a secondary button for vertical exposures, another for AE exposure lock, a focusing command and a lock button for FE/multi-spot exposure.

Canon EOS-1V: details

Construction and reliability

Professional cameras must be resistant to climatic changes and to water, sand and dust. The EOS-1V has been developed to reflect feedback from professional photographers who work in severe environments. Canon has succeeded in raising the level of water and dust resistance. The 72 major body seams and moving parts, such as the shutter button, selector buttons and Main/Quick Control Dials, are carefully sealed with silicone rubber, and the edges of the back cover are thoroughly finished. Furthermore, the battery chamber located inside the new grip GR-E2 is protected by packing, while the insides of function buttons, found on the upper left of the body, are protected from dust and water by a silicone rubber boot. The EOS-1V's electronically controlled rotary magnet shutter has been tested to 150,000 cycles and designed to eliminate the possibility of operational trouble. This shutter unit ensures constant operation that remains as accurate as its original performance even after long use and under severe shooting conditions.

Outstanding AF technology

The EOS-1V's 45-point Area AF is the result of Canon's pursuit of an AF system that allows continuous shooting ease and expanded framing freedom. The 45 focusing points are densely packed within an 8 x 15 mm zone and can be manually or automatically selected to meet the needs of the situation. When multiple points are selected, AF system capabilities are significantly extended. Born of Canon's original technology, this system has been refined for the EOS-1V to ensure the unconditional reliability, accuracy and high focusing speeds requisite for professional use. While photographers have the freedom to frame images through the viewfinder as they choose, the lens is automatically brought into focus as soon as the active focusing points cover the subject. Like a human eye, Canon's 45-point Area AF tracks and aims true. This is typical of Canon's state-of-the-art AF technology, recognized by professional photographers everywhere. All 45 focusing points can be used simultaneously for optimum auto focus results or manually selected. The predictive AI Servo AF system allows the tracking of fast-moving objects while maintaining precise focus. This system affords impressive results in terms of continuous shooting and boasts excellent sequential processing efficiency.

Film Transport Technology

The EOS-1V features the world's fastest continuous shooting speed, enabling film transport at an astounding rate of 10 fps. Now Canon gives you the power to transform one dramatic moment into a series of heart-stopping images. With the Power Drive Booster PB-E2 (driven by the NP-E2 Ni-MH Battery Pack) the EOS-1V allows unprecedented levels of visual creativity. Sensational gains in continuous shooting performance mean rapid film transport of up to 9 fps even in predictive AI Servo AF mode, which can focus track a subject approaching the camera at 50 km/h up to 8 meters away (with the EF 300 mm f/2.8L IS USM). What's more, even when set at an intermediate film transport speed of around 3 to 5 fps, the EOS-1V demonstrates outstanding basic performance. For example, the viewfinder blackout time is remarkably shortened, the minimum distance at which a high-speed moving subject can be autofocused is reduced, and so on.

Metering System

Canon's exclusive AIM (Advanced Integrated Multi-Point control) system integrates Area AF and all six metering modes available with the EOS-1V. Focus on a subject within the Area AF ellipse, and the EOS-1V will meter that area for the optimum result where it's needed most. All six metering modes use the 21-zone evaluative metering sensor.

Metering modes:

• 21-Zone Evaluative Metering
• Partial Metering
• Center Spot Metering
• Focusing Point-linked Spot Metering
• Multi-spot Metering
• Centerweighted Averaging Metering
• E-TTL Autoflash AE
• A-TTL Autoflash AE
• TTL Autoflash AE.

Exposure modes:

• Program AE
• Shutter-speed Priority AE
• Aperture Priority AE
• Depth-of-field AE
• Manual Exposure
• Bulb

Customization

If a PC with EOS Link Software ES-E1 installed is linked with the EOS-1V, camera functionality and the capacity for representation are markedly expanded. You can achieve various forms of customization, function extension, data download by following messages on the monitor screen. ES-E1 software is primarily intended for advanced Personal Function customization, so users of the EOS-1V can program it to reflect their personal preferences, shooting purposes and conditions. It also allows the management of data relating to settings used for exposed film. Since the EOS-1V has a built-in memory to save shooting data, selectable from 25 items, including shutter speed and aperture values, are automatically saved in the camera's memory each time the shutter is released. At the same time, an arbitrary two-digit number and an auto-incrementing three-digit ID number are automatically imprinted on the film leader. This means the film and shooting data can be matched. The storage capacity of the built-in memory varies depending on the number of items to be recorded. In general, data can be saved for 50 to 200 rolls of film with 36 exposures, with data for 100 rolls being recorded in the standard setting.

Canon EOS-1V: specifications

Canon EOS-1V: schemes

LCD panel

Viewfinder

Camera body schemes

Click the image to enlarge it in a new window:

For citation purposes

An overview of Canon EOS technology

• Canon Dual Pixel CMOS AF
• 35mm CMOS image sensor for Digital Cine Motion Imaging
• Hybrid IS (Image Stabilizer System)
• Subwavelength Structure Coating (SWC)
• DO (Diffractive Optic Element)
• IS (Image Stabilizer System)
• USM (Ultra Sonic Motor)
• EMD (Electromagnetic Diaphragm)
• Eye-controlled Autofocus
• Autofocus Area
• Anti-Fogging film
• Aspherical lenses
• Fluorite lenses

Canon Dual Pixel CMOS AF

Canon Dual Pixel CMOS AF is a revolutionary new technology that unlocks the potential of Live View when capturing video and still images.

During video capture Dual Pixel CMOS AF provides natural autofocus that is reminiscent of the way the human eye focuses - like that of a camcorder – so focus transitions are smooth and subjects remain locked in even as they move.

It also enables phenomenally accurate and faster-than-ever autofocus through an LCD monitor, allowing the user to realize the unique compositional freedom of angle that Live View is capable of providing. And the compatibility of Dual Pixel CMOS AF with 103 Canon EF lenses empowers the user with exceptional optical tools for nearly limitless creative options.

 White paper (4.7MB)

35mm CMOS image sensor for Digital Cine Motion Imaging

The new CMOS image sensor embodied in the Canon C300 digital cinema camera is based upon the established Bayer color filter array for encoding of the color components. But important advances in demosaicing algorithms have steadily improved the reconstruction of RGB video components that support the color correction and image manipulation required in postproduction. Canon explored an alternative to such reconstructive algorithms in a quest to pursue an overall image quality that aspires to achieve the superb aesthetics long associated with 35mm motion picture film.

White paper (1.0 MB, ENG)

Hybrid IS (Image Stabilizer System)

Canon's research on image stabilization was started in the 80s and the world's first optical image stabilizer for SLR cameras was introduced in 1995. Since then, Canon has made continual advancements in IS systems to improve compensation for camera shake. Now, Canon introduces its Hybrid IS system in the EF 100mm f/2.8L Macro IS USM lens. This system is designed especially for Macro Photography and it represents another step in world's photography.

Conventional image stabilization technology is useful for reducing the effects of camera shake in non-macro shooting situations. When shooting handheld close-ups at 1x, however, it's difficult to achieve acceptable results with conventional image stabilizers. Now, thanks to the Hybrid IS, Canon makes it easy to obtain clear close-ups where the use of a tripod is not an option.

The Hybrid IS system is able to compensate for both angular camera shake and shift camera shake. Such shakes affect both the image formed on the sensor and the image shown in the viewfinder, making it extremely difficult to record sharp images.

The Hybrid IS includes an acceleration sensor [image at right] in addition to the conventional angular velocity sensor (vibration gyro) [image at left].

Based on the amount of camera shake detected by the two distinct sensors, the algorithm calculates the amount of blur on the image plane, after which the compensating lens group is positioned -- such group lays on low-friction ceramic balls.

Subwavelength Structure Coating (SWC)

Subwavelength Structure Coating (SWC) is a new coating technology for camera lenses that minimizes ghosting and flare caused by reflected light.

Reflections are caused by large changes in the refractive index of light at the glass-air boundary on the surface of a lens. To date, efforts to take advantage of light interference and minimize reflections have consisted of applying a thin film of coating onto the lens surface, but this approach can fail and sometimes leads to ghosting and flare.

Canon's special SWC coating minimizes reflections by aligning countless wedge-shaped structures more minute than the wavelength of visible light on the surface of a camera lens.

These wedges continuously change the refractive index of light at the glass-air boundary of the lens, thereby eliminating the boundary where the index undergoes large changes. This lack of large change in the refractive index drastically reduces reflections. SWC therefore realizes superior anti-reflective capabilities in environments where previous coating technologies could not, particularly in situations involving light with a large angle of incidence.

Source: Canon Global.

DO (Elemento ad Ottica Diffrattiva)

Canon introduces the first multilayered Diffractive Optic lens of the world, with the EF 400mm f/4 DO lens. The prototype will be in commerce this year.

The optical element equipping it has the characteristics either of the fluorite lenses, and of the aspherical ones, thus representing a revolutionary evolution in photo optics.

The multilayered diffractive lenses are constructed with the goal to alter the light path inside the lenses and to not scatter part of that light as happens with normal lenses: here, in fact, all the light is forced to describe the image. Moreover, this kind of lenses correct the chromatic aberration (the different colors focus at different distances) even better than the expensive fluorite lenses, while, calibrating the spacing of the diffractive group also the spherical aberration is corrected, rendering useless the resource of the expensive aspherical lenses.

The construction of these new lenses requires a micrometric precision and three-dimensional instrumentations patented by the same Canon.

IS (Image Stabilizer) System

One of the causes of a photography failure is always has been the "moved", so the only alternative to a tripod was the use of more sensible films or the resource to a fortune support. Canon therefore has developed an image stabilizing system, using it either in the telecameras and inserting it into the lenses. The vibrations transmitted from the hand to the camera transmit also to the lens and therefore to the optical elements. The lens movement causes the movement of the image formed, regarding the optical axis. If, therefore, the elements could move independently from the system, the problem would be resolved. This idea has been the assumption to the development of Canon's stabilizing system.

The system is based on the connection of two vibrating gyroscopes that detect the vertical and horizontal vibrations and command an equal and contrary reaction of the sophisticated optical group assigned to the correction. The answer time of the correction is in the order of 1/2,000 of a second. It turns out a corrective effect equal to two stops in terms of exposure: the gain is therefore of two stop (equivalents to a 2 stop more luminous lens or to a 2 stop faster film) before a really moved image. The stabilization system is useful also in the panning technique (you follow a moving subject moving your camera). The software detects the movement typical of the technique and switches off the correction in the direction of the panning, keeping on only the correction of the vibration in the other directions.

IS Mode 2: this new technology automatically determines that the movement is conscious panning and halts correction in the relevant direction, thereby preventing shake-return. The IS Mode 2 system automatically detects lack of movement / vibration to prevent operation errors when a tripod is in use. IS efficacy increases and lower overall size have been achieved through improvements in the moving contact sections of the IS lens barrel, the IS lens group barrel locking mechanism and the shake-detection gyro.

USM (Ultra Sonic Motor)

In the 1987 Canon adopted for the first time the ultrasonic motor (USM) for the autofocus lenses. The main characteristics were the high speed and the low noise, conquering the favour of all the sport- and nature- photographers of the world. Thanks to the innovation without comparisons, the manual lenses were abandoned very soon.

In the 1992 Canon developed an USM micromotor that could be produced industrially: currently, those USM micromotors equip nearly all the lenses of the Canon panorama.

The operation of the USM motor is based on the transmission of a vibration produced by an ultrasonic wave. Therefore, the motor ring doesn't require neither gears, nor any electromagnetic field sources and supplies a very fast, noiseless answer with a very low energetic consumption. The range of use of the system goes from -30°C to +60°C.

EMD (Electromagnetic Diaphragm)

EMD (Electromagnetic Diaphragm) is a diaphragm drive control actuator, which is a component integrating both a stepping motor and a diaphragm blade unit in a single unit, used for fully-electronic data transmission EF mount system. Every EF lens incorporates an EMD unit as a basic component of the EOS system. EMD controls diaphragm blade by a stepping motor and aperture diameter by electronic pulse signal from the camera body to overcome the problem of conventional mechanical diaphragm units, while also provides benefits that conventional mechanism does not offer.

EYE-controlled Autofocus

Canon has developed the control of the autofocus automatism through the movement of the pupil. The mechanism is set in action by the semipression of the push-button, but in this case the AF activates on the AF cell nearest the exact point where the photographer is watching through the view-finder.

The control through the pupil happens thanks to an infrared lighting system of the pupil and to the detection of the rays reflected from the cornea and to the monitoring of the relative positions of the eye and the same pupil: this allows a sensor to calculate the bending angle of the eye and to activate the sensor in the calculated direction.

An advanced algorithm controls the variables that would cause an error: direct light on the eye, presence of glasses, tears, etc. The algorithm requires a very short initial calibration, to record the physical aspects of the eye of the photographer (or of other photographers).

Autofocus Area

Canon continues in its search to obtain an automatic focusing function covering virtually any point of the shot. In the beginning there was the single focusing point, then they was three, then five. With the birth of the EOS-3 the points have reached the number of 45, scattered in an area of 8x15 mm. The 45 points are either vertical and horizontal and they are active also in very animated shots. This system has been installed also in the new EOS1-V, after significant testing sessions made by many professionals. The 45 points are supported by a CMOS sensor with an efficiency from 30 to 40 times better than the ordinary AF sensors.

Anti-Fogging film

When warm air comes in contact of a cold glass, then the humidity of the air condenses on the glass. In these conditions, lenses and view-finders can cloud and you need to wait for long time before the condenses evaporates.

The problem is strong for winter photographers: they must lend the highest attention not to breath on the sensitive glasses of their equipment, in order to avoid to lose important time.

The Anti-Fogging technology developed by Canon concurs to absorb condenses into a thin synthetic film deposited on the external surface of the glass. The film is composed of two polymers, one organic and one inorganic. The first one absorbs condenses, while the second prevents the disaggregation of the first and its separation from the glass. The film is also abrasion-resistant.

Aspherical lenses

A photographic spherical element has a fundamental defect: it cannot make converge in a single fire point the parallel rays entering the element, so the optical image is not a clear image. Some standard optical groups correct the aberration, but they are not right if you want to reduce the dimensions or the weight of the system. These limits are exceeded using the aspherical optical elements, but they are difficult to construct, demanding a working accuracy equal to 0.1µm or less. In order to industrially produce the aspherical elements, Canon developed a line for the dedicated construction, thanks also to the use of control instruments with a precision of 0.02µm (laser interferometer) and to machines for the aspherical working never constructed before. Canon has then perfected the system, differentiating the workings on the base of photographic requirements.

Fluorite lenses

The subdivision of the light in different colors (wavelengths) causes the chromatic aberration during light passaging through a conventional element: the different colors are focused at different distances, causing a chromatic under-focusing. In order to correct it, it's a necessity an optical group constituted by a convex and a concave lenses: it works good, but it doesn't correct the green spectrum. For this reason, Canon has constructed the fluorite lenses, in order to focus all the colors in the same point nearly to the perfection. Fluorite (CaF2) is a mineral with particular features, as the low refraction index and a low dispersion, but in nature is not diffused and large enough to drawn industrial lenses.

For this reason, Canon developed in 1969 a process of synthetic crystallization of the fluorite and produced the first lens equipped of a fluorite element. Currently, nearly all the telephoto lenses and the professional zooms mount a fluorite element. A particular care is required in the working phases (grinding and polishing), that need sophisticated technologies: microscopical diamond abrasion in order to achieve a polishing with a ruvidity under the 0.002µm.

For citation purposes

An overview of Canon's equipment for macrophotography.

Canon EF 100mm F2.8 L USM Macro with Hybrid IS

Canon continues its advancement of EOS lens technology with the introduction of the high performance EF 100mm F2.8 L USM Macro with Hybrid IS, the latest addition to its prestigious L-series, Canon’s flagship professional lens range.

This lens is its first mid-telephoto macro lens to include Canon's sophisticated Hybrid Image Stabilization, compensating for both angle camera shake and shift camera shake, up to four shutter speed steps.

With the highest quality optics available - thanks to ultra low dispersion (UD) lenses, the Super Spectra coating, and a nine blade circular aperture - combined with near-silent ring type USM Autofocus motor and life-size close-up capabilities, the EF 100mm f/2.8L Macro IS USM is simply unrivalled. As part of the L-series the lens features dust and water resistant seals.

Specifications:

• Focal Length: 100mm
• Maximum Aperture: 1:2.8.
• Lens construction: 15 elements/12 groups.
• Focus adjustment: Inner focusing system with USM. Full-time manual focus.
• Closest focusing distance: 0.99 ft./0.3m (@ 1x).
• Filter size: 67mm.
• Max. diameter x Length, Weight: 3.1 x 4.8 in./77.7 x 123mm, 22.0 oz./625g.

Our review of the Canon EF 100mm f/2.8L Macro IS USM lens [in Italian only].

Canon MT-24EX Macro Twin Lite flash unit

The new Canon Macro Twin Lite MT-24EX is the most advanced flash unit for macrophotography available in any SLR system. This new Macro Twin Lite provides an incredible flexibility by incorporating twin flash heads with adjustable positions for a variety of lighting setups and advanced E-TTL autoflash capabilities (with EOS-1V, EOS-3, EOS-D30, EOS-D60, EOS-1D), and supports TTL auto flash plus manual flash exposure control on all the Canon EOS system cameras.

Each individual flash head can be rotated both vertically and horizontally or completely removed from the mounting ring and mounted on a tripod or light stand. The flash heads can be fired together or individually, providing even greater lighting flexibility. In addition, the mounting ring itself can be rotated.

Supplying a powerful maximum Guide Number of 78/22 (ISO 100/ft/m.), the new Macro Twin Lite supports a number of advanced flash metering and customization features, including spot Flash Exposure Lock (FE-L) and bracketing, FP Flash (high-speed synchronization to the camera's maximum shutter speed), variable power manual flash, wireless remote functions (with an unlimited number of 550EX or 420EX Speedlite flash units).

The new MT-24EX is also equipped with twin focusing lamps and a set of 9 Custom Functions that allow the user to modify flash operation for specific shooting conditions. The Macro Twin Lite MT-24EX uses 4 AA-size alkaline, lithium, Ni-Cd or Ni-MH batteries and is compatible with Canon's auxiliary power packs, Compact Battery Pack CP-E2 and Transistor Pack E for faster recycling and a greater number of flashes per charge for extended shooting sessions.

(from the american Canon Press release)

Canon Macro Ring Lite MR-14EX & Canon EF 100/2.8 Macro USM

The new Canon Macro Ring MR-1EX is the most advanced and the most versatile ring flash for macrophotography. The MR-1EX offers the full control of the light: the two flash bulbs are independent and the relative powers can be setted from 8:1 to 1:1 or from 1:1 to 1:8, for a maximum control of the shadows. The exposure is E-TTL (like in the torch flash 550EX). The flash can be used with E-TTL full control without cables, with a virtually infinite number of 550EX flash units arranged around the subject, for a truly optimal control of the light. The light control is previewed in real time on the LCD panel of the MR-1EX.

The Guide Number is 14 (@ 100 ISO) and the minimal operative distance is hardly 2cm. More: exposure lock (FEL) with the semispot and spot exposure modes also on decentralized particulars, high synchronization speed (up to the shorter supported shutter speed), manual flash with variable power (decreasing power down to 1/64), exposure compensation in a range of +/- 3 stops. The MR-1EX flash is compatible with all EOS cameras and also with the Canon T90, even if it has been projected in particular for the EOS-3 and the EOS-1V (with which E-TTL functions are available). Among the accessories, the remote power source CP-E2, furnishing a strong decrease in recharging times and increasing the autonomy of the flash.

To complete of the rich EF Canon macro system, the new and sharp EF 100/2.8 USM Macro lens has arrived. The lens has been completely redesigned, so as to add the speed of the ultrasonic focusing (full-time manually assisted), the inner focusing (without any movement of the frontal element and without any increment of the lens length) and to improve the optical quality regarding the previous 100/2,8. The inner focusing system has allowed to maintain its dramatic sharpness from the center to the edges of the photogram, for all the shooting distances.

Quick specifications of Canon EF 100/2.8 Macro USM:

• Lens construction: 12 elements in 8 groups
• Minimum Aperture: f/32
• Minimum Focusing Distance: 15cm (from the frontal element)
• Maximum Magnification: 1x
• Filter Diameter: 58mm
• Weight: 600g

Canon EF Macro Photo 65mm f/2.8 1~5x

Special lens especially destined to macrophotography (it doesn't focus to infinite). The magnification is zoomable and ranges from 1:1 (1x, natural dimensions) to 5:1 (5x, 5 times the natural dimensions) by turning the focusing ring and increasing the extension. High mechanical rigidity and complex optical scheme: 10 elements in 8 groups, one low dispersion / high refraction lens, in order to obtain a high chromatic correction.

The front lenses present a multilayered treatment, in order to reduce the parasite lights, and the internal mechanics are covered by an absorbent paint. The quality is assured from the center to the borders of the photogram. The view through the lens is clear and contrasted, thanks to the f/2.8 maximum aperture.

• Aperture range: F2.8-F16. The lens doesn't close beyond f/16 because of the succession of the diffraction. In case of 5x magnification is not advisable to go beyond f/11.
• Focusing: manual.
• Focusing distances: 10cm for 1:1, 4cm for 5:1.
• Range field: 24x36mm for 1:1, 5x7mm for 5:1.
• Advised operativity: tripod (the lens is equipped with a tripod ring) and flash ring.

Metz Mecablitz 15 MS-1 Digital

The Metz mecablitz 15 MS-1 digital has two individually adjustable reflectors (0°- 20°). As a result, this new flash unit ensures precise and creative lighting in the macro range. The Metz mecablitz 15 MS-1 digital automatically adjusts its light output by means of wireless TTL (if together with a master flash unit), making it particularly reliable and precise. You can use also the manual control mode in order to vary the amount of light with six levels of light output. There is also an LCD display which makes the Mecablitz 15 MS-1 digital even easier to use. Built-in rechargeables batteries. The Metz mecablitz 15 MS-1 digital is suitable for all camera manufacturers (Canon, Nikon, Olympus, Panasonic, Pentax, Samsung and Sony-Alpha).

• Max. GN of 15 for ISO 100/21° and 50 mm
• High number of flashes (e.g. 200 full flashes with NiMH batteries, 1000 mAh)
• Flash recycle time 0.3 – 5 secs (depending on the energy source and flash output)

Reverse adapter Novoflex/Canon EOS

The adapter opens the world of extreme close-up photography to users of Canon EOS cameras with wide angle or zoom lenses. The lens is mounted on the adapter in reverse position, ensuring outstanding quality of the resulting photographs.

The adapter transmits all the lens information to the camera body. Using a Canon EOS zoom lens with a focal length of 28-105 in reverse position, the adapter allows the user to take photographs with magnification ratios of 1:7 at the 105mm end to 2.8:1 at the 28mm setting.

No prime macro lens is capable of matching this range (except the specialistic Canon MP 65/2.8 1~5x). The adapter is supplied with 58mm treads, but adapter rings for lenses with other filter thread sizes are available.

• Dimension: 75 mm
• Weight: 160 g
• Max cord length: 550 mm

More info: www.novoflex.com

For citation purposes

What is a camera

A camera is a device used to record an image of a landscape or a subject, by exposing a light-sensitive support like a film or a digital sensor.

A modern camera is made of a camera body and a lens which can be either fixed or interchangeable. Between the lens and the camera there is an iris diaphragm which is (electro)mechanically controlled by the shutter. The cameras equipped with an internal mirror are called reflex, and they allow the direct view of a framed scene through the viewfinder and the lens. The same scene seen through the viewfinder will be then exposed on a film or a sensor.
Cameras with interchangeable lenses are called SLR (Single Lens Reflex). Most professional cameras used today are SLRs of different formats (35mm, medium format, large format, etc.).

The optical path

Here is the scheme of the optical path on a reflex camera: the light (1) enters the body (3) through the lens (2) and then reaches the reflex mirror (4) which is on a stand-by position. The mirror deflects the light beam upwards, where the pentaprism (5) through the viewfinder enables the viewing of scenes as captured by the lens (6). The mirror, which is translucent, allows part of the light beam to pass towards the film or the exposure sensor (7) and the image analysis sensors (8). The film or the sensor receives 100% of the light beam when the shutter, triggered by the shutter button, lifts upwards the mirror and the diaphragm closes at the aperture value set for that shot.

In a non-reflex camera, more commonly known as compact camera, the lens is fixed, not interchangeable. There are also less functions available compared to an SLR. Moreover, the optical viewfinder does not reflect the exact same scene captured by the lens, being shifted compared to the optical axis: such deviation is called parallax error. Although minimal at medium to long distances, the parallax error can be critical in close-up photography where the risk of recording a scene that is significantly different from the framed one is higher.
However, the need of framing the scene using the viewfinder has disappeared with the introduction of digital compacts, which allow the user to see the scene projected directly on the LCD screen or on an electronic viewfinder (EVF), like in mirrorless cameras.

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